PHRASES
A phrase is
a group of related words that lacks both a subject and a verb. Because it lacks
a subject and a predicate it cannot act as a sentence. A phrase typically
functions as a single part of speech in a sentence (e.g., noun, adjective,
adverb). Most phrases have a central word defining the type of phrase. This
word is called the head of the phrase. Some phrases, however, can be headless.
Phrases may
be classified by the type of head taken by them:
The
prepositional phrase includes the preposition and the object of the preposition
as well as any modifiers related to either.
In the
following examples, the preposition is bold and the prepositional phrase is
underlined.
The flying saucer appeared above
the lake before it disappeared into space.
ABOVE is not an adverb because it has an object to complete its
meaning; therefore, ABOVE is a preposition and the entire phrase is an adverb
phrase.
Crystal could hear her sister snoring across the room.
Objects usually answer the question what. To determine the object
of the preposition, we can ask: Crystal could hear her sister snoring across
what?
You should consider reading the notes *before you come to class.
BEFORE is not a preposition because is not followed by an object
that it links to the clause. It is followed by another clause that is
subordinate in meaning to the independent clause; therefore, it is a
subordinate conjunction.
The
participial phrase includes the participle and the object of the participle or
any words modified by or related to the participle.
In the
following examples, the participle is bold and the participial phrase is
underlined.
The car sliding
out of control toward building will likely hit the window.
SLIDING modifies the CAR. The verb is WILL HIT.
Cameron spotted his brother throwing
rocks at the passing cars.
THROWING is not a verb in this sentence. It describes the brother.
Without an auxiliary verb, it cannot function as a verb. SPOTTED is the verb
for the subject CARMEN.
The astronaut chosen
to ride the space shuttle to Mars is afraid of heights.
CHOSEN describes the ASTRONAUT.
The gerund
phrase includes the gerund and the object of the gerund or any modifiers
related to the gerund.
In the
following examples, the gerund is bold and the gerund phrase is underlined.
Flying above the lake at this time of night seems a
little dangerous.
FLYING is the subject of the sentence. A subject is a noun. A form
of the verb ending in ING and used as a noun is a gerund. FLYING is a gerund.
Bill decided that scrambling
over the pile of debris was not safe.
SCRAMBLING is the subject of the dependent clause. A subject is a
noun. A form of the verb ending in ING and used as a noun is a gerund.
SCRAMBLING is a gerund.
Ethan avoided doing
his homework because the Ducks were playing the Cougars.
DOING is the direct object of the verb AVOIDED. An object is a
noun. A form of the verb ending in ING and used as a noun is a gerund. DOING is
a gerund. HOMEWORK is the object of the gerund.
The
infinitive phrase includes the infinitive and the object of the infinitive or
any modifiers related to the infinitive.
In the
following examples, the infinitive is bold and the infinitive phrase is
underlined.
Even in New York, fans did not manage to buy the hype.
TO BUY is the direct object of the verb DID MANAGE. THE HYPE is
the object of the infinitive.
The seemingly simple decision to
appoint a Democrat caused controversy.
TO APPOINT is an adjective modifying DECISION. A DEMOCRAT is the
object of the infinitive.
The gap provides a way to
give Democratic candidates an edge in close elections
TO GIVE is an adjective modifying WAY. The object of the
infinitive is CANDIDATES.
A word,
phrase or clause that means the same thing as (i.e., synonym) or further
explains another noun (pronoun).
Non-restrictive
appositives are not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Restrictive
appositives are essential to the meaning of the sentence.
NON-RESTRICTIVE:
Her husband, Fritz, is a nice guy.
We assume she has only one
husband. Thus, commas are used.
The firm chose Mary, vice president of public affairs,
as its chief executive officer.
Because we have identified the
person by name, her title is additional information. It can be set off by
commas. In other words, we could take it out and the meaning would not change.
The Grand Canyon, one of
our nation's most popular tourist attractions, is breathtaking to
behold.
Because we have identified the place by name, the rest is
additional information. It can be set off by commas. In other words, we could
take it out and the meaning would not change.
RESTRICTIVE:
Evan's friend John cheated on the test.
EVAN has more than one friend; therefore, no commas are used to
set off JOHN. We need the name to know which friend we're talking about.
We students are happy with good grades.
STUDENTS identify who WE [subj.] are. If we remove it, WE does not
have the same meaning.
She waited patiently for the
famous author Stephen King.
STEPHEN KING identifies which famous author. There is no comma
after AUTHOR because there are many famous authors.
Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs
If a clause can stand alone as a
sentence, it is an independent clause, as in the following
example:
Independent
The Prime
Minister is in Ottawa
Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in this
case, they are dependent clauses or subordinate
clauses. Consider the same clause with the subordinating
conjunction "because" added to the beginning:
Dependent
When the
Prime Minister is in Ottawa
In this case, the clause could
not be a sentence by itself, since the conjunction "because" suggests
that the clause is providing an explanation for something else. Since this
dependent clause answers the question "when," just like an adverb, it
is called a dependent adverb clause (or simply an adverb
clause, since adverb clauses are always dependent clauses). Note how the clause
can replace the adverb "tomorrow" in the following examples:
Adverb
The
committee will meet tomorrow.
Adverb Clause
The
committee will meet when the
Prime Minister is in Ottawa.
Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for
nouns and for adjectives.
Noun Clauses
A noun clause is an entire
clause which takes the place of a noun in another clause or phrase. Like a
noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of a verb or the object of a
preposition, answering the questions "who(m)?" or "what?".
Consider the following examples:
Noun
I know Latin.
Noun Clause
I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native
language.
In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the
direct object of the verb "know." In the second example, the entire
clause "that Latin ..." is the direct object.
In fact, many noun clauses are
indirect questions:
Noun
Their destination is unknown.
Noun Clause
Where they are going is unknown.
The question "Where are they going?," with a slight
change in word order, becomes a noun clause when used as part of a larger unit
-- like the noun "destination," the clause is the subject of the verb
"is."
Here are some more examples of
noun clauses:
about what you bought at the mall
This noun clause is the object of the preposition
"about," and answers the question "about what?"
Whoever broke the vase will have to pay for it.
This noun clause is the subject of the verb "will have to
pay," and answers the question "who
will have to pay?"
The Toronto fans hope that the Blue Jays will win again.
This noun clause is the object of the verb "hope," and
answers the question "what
do the fans hope?"
Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a
dependent clause which takes the place of an adjective in another clause or
phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun,
answering questions like "which?" or "what kind of?"
Consider the following examples:
Adjective
the red coat
Adjective clause
the coat which I bought yesterday
Like the word "red" in the first example, the dependent
clause "which I bought yesterday" in the second example modifies the
noun "coat." Note that an adjective clause usually comes after what it modifies, while an
adjective usually comes before.
In formal writing, an adjective clause begins with the relative
pronouns "who(m)," "that," or "which." In
informal writing or speech, you may leave out the relative pronoun when it is
not the subject of the adjective clause, but you should usually include the
relative pronoun in formal, academic writing:
Informal
The books
people read were mainly religious.
Formal
The books that people read were mainly
religious.
Informal
Some
firefighters never meet the people they save.
Formal
Some firefighters never meet the
people whom they save.
Here are some more examples of adjective clauses:
the meat which they ate was tainted
This clause modifies the noun "meat" and answers the
question "which meat?"
about the movie which made him cry
This clause modifies the noun "movie" and answers the
question "which movie?"
they are searching for the one who borrowed the book
The clause modifies the pronoun "one" and answers the
question "which one?"
Did I tell you about the author whom I met?
The clause modifies the noun "author" and answers the
question "which author?"
Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause is a
dependent clause which takes the place of an adverb in another clause or
phrase. An adverb clause answers questions such as "when?",
"where?", "why?", "with what goal/result?", and
"under what conditions?"
Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb in the following
example:
Adverb
The premier
gave a speech here.
Adverb Clause
The premier
gave a speech where the
workers were striking.
Usually, a subordinating conjunction like "because,"
"when(ever)," "where(ever)," "since,"
"after," and "so that," will introduce an adverb clause.
Note that a dependent adverb clause can never
stand alone as a complete sentence:
Independent Clause
They left the locker room
Dependent Adverb Clause
after they left the locker room
The first example can easily stand alone as a sentence, but the
second cannot -- the reader will ask what
happened "after they left the locker room". Here are some more
examples of adverb clauses expressing the relationships of cause, effect,
space, time, and condition:
Cause
Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle because the uncle had murdered Hamlet's
father.
The adverb clause answers the
question "why?"
Effect
Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle so that his father's murder would be avenged.
The adverb clause answers the
question "with what goal/result?".
Time
After Hamlet's uncle Claudius
married Hamlet's mother, Hamlet wanted to kill him.
The adverb clause answers the question "when?". Note the
change in word order -- an adverb clause can often appear either before or
after the main part of the sentence.
Place
Where the whole Danish court was
assembled, Hamlet
ordered a play in an attempt to prove his uncle's guilt.
The adverb clause answers the
question "where?".
Condition
If the British co-operate, the Europeans may achieve
monetary union.
The adverb clause answers the
question "under what conditions?"
Recognising Clauses
Consider these examples:
Clause
Cows eat
grass
This example is a clause, because it contains the subject
"cows" and the predicate "eat grass."
Phrase
Cows eating
grass
What about "cows eating grass"? This noun phrase could
be a subject, but it has no predicate attached to it: the adjective phrase
"eating grass" show which
cows the writer is referring to, but there is nothing here to show why the
writer is mentioning cows in the first place.
Clause
Cows eating
grass are visible from the highway
This is a complete clause again. The subject "cows eating
grass" and the predicate "are visible from the highway" make up
a complete thought.
Clause
Run!
This single-word command is also a clause, even though it does
seem to have a subject.
With a direct command, it is not necessary to include the subject,
since it is obviously the person or people you are talking to: in other words,
the clause really reads "[You] run!" You should not usually use
direct commands in your essays, except in quotations.
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